3 Types of Extended Phrasal Adjectives

3 Types of Extended Phrasal Adjectives 3 Types of Extended Phrasal Adjectives 3 Types of Extended Phrasal Adjectives By Mark Nichol Each of the following sentences includes a phrasal adjective (two or more words that modify a noun) consisting of several words, and each requires hyphenation missing from that phrase. Discussion after each example explains the problem, and revisions demonstrate solutions. 1. These remain front and center priorities for organizations. When a phrase structured as â€Å"[blank] and [blank]† and serving to modify a noun precedes the noun, hyphenate the three words: â€Å"These remain front-and-center priorities for organizations.† However, no hyphenation is necessary when the phrase follows the noun: â€Å"These priorities remain front and center for organizations.† 2. This guide includes a special supplement on the first of its kind regulation requiring certification and screening programs. The same holds true for any more extensive phrase providing more details about a noun that follows the phrase- hyphenate the phrase into a unified chain: â€Å"This guide includes a special supplement on the first-of-its-kind regulation requiring certification and screening programs.† Again, omit hyphens when the phrase follows the noun: â€Å"This guide includes a special supplement on the regulation, the first of its kind, requiring certification and screening programs.† 3. It was a wrong place, wrong time situation for me. When a phrase that represents or alludes to a standing expression precedes a noun, as in the abridgment of the sentiment â€Å"[One] was in the wrong place at the wrong time† in the example above, string the phrase together with hyphens, deleting any punctuation internal to the phrase: â€Å"It was a wrong-place-wrong-time situation for me.† Once again, omit hyphens (and retain applicable punctuation) when the phrase follows the noun: â€Å"The situation was a case of wrong place, wrong time for me.† Enclosing the phrase in quotation marks is an alternative (â€Å"It was a ‘wrong place, wrong time’ situation for me†), but this strategy should be reserved for phrasal adjectives of unwieldy length that, because they are part of a direct quote, cannot be relocated after the noun in a revised sentence. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Congratulations on or for?3 Types of HeadingsThe "Pied" in The Pied Piper

Security Assessment Essays

Security Assessment Essays Security Assessment Essay Security Assessment Essay Directions: Choose one of the Facts for Consideration subdivisions from Ch. 3 of the text and list the page figure for the subdivision you chose. Then. finish the undermentioned tabular array. List five menaces appropriate to the environment from the subdivision you chose. Rate the hazard for each menace from 0 ( low ) to 10 ( high ) . Then. list five appropriate countermeasures. Once you complete the tabular array. compose a brief account of the countermeasures for the two menaces with the highest hazard sum. saying how the countermeasure reduces the hazard associated with that menace. Conveyance should be equipped with a thick metal coop environing country inmates are in. Inmates should be contained besides with bonds on custodies and pess. Property harm and or personal injury All inmates. shackled together or non. demand to hold bonds anchored to sturdy eyebolts welded into floor to keep limited motion. Escape during bathroom interruptions Armed guard bodyguard to restroom from conveyance. armed bodyguard to transport. with staying guard still on conveyance. Inmates relieves themselves under armed surveillance. with door unfastened at all times. No civilians allowed near inmates. or bathrooms during the inmate’s bathroom interruptions and guards must inspect bathrooms exhaustively before and after go forthing public toilets. Excess guards in bodyguard autos should assist in this procedure to keep security. Escape through Windowss or blowholes All Windowss and blowholes should be secured outside of the coop environing the inmates. armed guard should be in conveyance at all times. regardless of the guard. a caput count should be done before and after all Michigans. Escape through outside resources. Limit all contact between captive and outside contacts prior to transport. curtail prisoners’ cognition of agenda for conveyance. Two armed guards on conveyance. non numbering driver. Two security autos. with two armed guards in each auto. following conveyance. One auto taking conveyance. with two armed guards. Cameras with sound on conveyance. communicating between conveyance and bodyguards at all times. In my appraisal. I chose to measure the article of the captive flight from captive conveyance. I need to measure the importance of procuring the vehicle to set up the safety of the inmates. the security forces. the driver. and all citizen’s in and around the path. I determined that one menace that is a high chance is physical assault. I can find this on a few different countries which is why I gave it a criticalness of 7. If a captive were caught get awaying a battle would result. if the captive were seen by a bystander. physical injury could come from the interaction. or if the captive got a clasp of a arm. he could go excessively courageous alternatively of merely running. My idea of countermeasures are that the conveyance should hold a strong metal coop dividing the inmates from the guards ; moreover. the inmates should be shackled. custodies and pess. with a hardy concatenation running from carpus bonds to ankle bonds. This should be restrictive to extinguish extra motion on the prisoner’s portion. The captives are being transported to installations better equipped to cover with them. non to travel to a watering place ; therefore their comfort is less of import. The following strong menace factor is through outside resources. This could go on in many ways. Since the inmates that are by and large on these types of conveyances are considered unsafe. security steps must be made to guarantee no contact with anyone on the exterior for a period of clip anterior to transport and should hold no cognition of conveyance day of the month. This could assist forestall pass oning with person on paths. times. or any other cognition that could be given to form a jailbreak. There should be at least two. or more. armed guards in the conveyance with the prisoner’s and driver at all times. This would let remainder every bit good as backup. There should be at least two autos following the conveyance to guarantee the conveyance is non ambushed easy. There should be two armed guards in each auto. Another auto with two armed guards should escort the conveyance. Finally. unfastened lines of contact should be in topographic point between all guards at all times. either via a system installed on the coach or through ear pieces and mikes. Having all guards in changeless communicating can forestall many jobs from originating ; because. one guard may see something another does non. and there are excess custodies in instance of problem should the inevitable happen. The appraisal I have provided. while necessitating excess work force. makes sense to me in the fact that this type of conveyance is traveling unsafe lading. The object of security in this affair is non to supply comfort. but to supply an excess step of protection for the inmates. driver. guards. and civilians likewise.

Water Balance Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Water Balance - Lab Report Example The vegetation and near costal topography of Berkeley is different when compared to the hilly continental Terre Haute which earlier had a facilitating water storage with a longer period. Humid and hot air with high pressure characterize Berkeley, which has dry and hot seasons. The indication to this is through the precipitation levels, which are precipitations less than one centimeter in the region during summer and up to 10 centimeters rise in precipitation in the same region during winter. This simply means that there is a rise in precipitation during winter and a fall during summer. This shifts focus to the earlier mentioned vegetation, which can only survive in one region at a time. When compared to a low-lying coastal stretch California, Indiana has high altitude levels meaning the climatic changes in both regions differ. Precipitation come because of the humid winds that blow from the oceans because of evaporation that continuously take place in oceans. When evaporation takes place in the oceans, winds blowing collect the water in humid form thus bringing about precipitation. The latter statement suggests that without winds there can be no precipitation explaining why precipitation is less in dry areas but very high in moist and icy areas. There is a higher likelihood of Evapotranspiration taking place brought about by high pressure and temperatures. The two figures explain that when there are high speeds of wind, precipitation goes high and vice versa. Therefore, during the months or November to march when the wind speeds are slightly higher than other months, the precipitation levels are high. It is during the months of November to march that high temperature levels force water to turn to vapor which ascends to the atmosphere and falls as conventional rainfall after condensation. Science explains that when water moves up in terms of vapor it

Strategic Marketing Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Strategic Marketing Managment - Essay Example Reebok began as an athletic shoe brand for the women’s aerobics segment because it had substantive consumer insights about the women segment. However, Reebok then changed its positioning strategy and it is now positioned as a lifestyle shoe demanded by several youth markets. The most important reason behind this change in positioning strategy was the marketing research that enabled Reebok to identify and analyse the scope of targeting new groups. Reebok managers had understood that a strong gap exists in the market of teenagers and young adults (youths), where there has been a never-ending demand of lifestyle footwear, apparel and accessories. For instance, Reebok marketers were also aware of the fact that their customers have inclination towards fitness and training, which could be met if they are offered premium quality fitness shoe brands and other supporting products. In this way, Reebok initiated a business expansion plan and launched its new positioning campaign to creat e awareness about company’s expanded product portfolio among Reebok‘s women, men and classics segments. In this way, Reebok enhanced its growth in the United States, North American and Europe markets. Distribution channel members (especially retailers) also played their vital role in positioning of Reebok’s products in the minds of end-users. ... In other words, a market could be divided into segments comprising customers with differences in ages, lifestyle, attitudes, behaviours, norms, standards, desires, income, education, marital status, religion, language, customs and traditions etc. Segmentation is an inevitable part of marketing strategy because it directly impacts marketing mix planning. Reebok has divided its market into 3 core segments that include Reebok men’s, women’s and classics. The sub-segments include Young adults (age 14 – 24 years), adults (age 25 – 40 years), middle-aged (age 40 – 55 years) and seniors (age 56 years and above). In addition, the customers are also divided into middle – middle, upper – middle and elite social classes to increase market reach and sales revenue. Indeed, the shoe-maker which has now become a part of Adidas group targets initially targeted women by coming up with a comprehensive idea of ‘women’s fitness with funâ€⠄¢ to enhance its credibility among women customers. The group reinforced its ideas regarding women’s fitness during 2009 and 2010 when it launched EasyTone, RunTone and TrainTone collections followed by launch of new women’s programmes and partnerships. The second core segment is known as Reebok’s men and the marketers target male customers. The company has established cordial ties with â€Å" world’s top athletes, professional leagues and teamsâ€Å" because these are opinion leaders and they facilitates in brand positioning and building consumer mindsets. This segment has immense potential because of natural inclination of a large majority of males in outdoor sports, athletic ventures, sporting and fitness activities. ReeZig and

Public policy-making and analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Public policy-making and analysis - Essay Example Michael Lipsky gave an argument that the implementation of policy, will in the end return to people who are responsible for implementing the policy (Lipsky, 1980). Michael Lipsky further argues that employees of the state, such as social workers, and the police are always regarded as part and parcel of a policy making community. These people are also regarded as implementers of political power. On this basis, Lipsky (1980) denotes that street level bureaucrats are people responsible for interacting with citizens on a daily basis, and they provide a force behind the laws and the given rules in their various areas of expertise. On this basis, this bureaucrat includes state officials who are always below the rank, and they have the opportunity of daily interacting with regular citizens. This paper gives an evaluation of the significance of these street level bureaucrats in the implementation of a government policy. Jones (2013) denotes that a policy is a set of protocols or principles responsible for guiding decisions regarding the methods to use for purposes of achieving a rational outcome. Jones (2013) denotes that one of the major significance of street level bureaucrats in the implementation of a policy is that they are accessible to the public, and citizens of the state. It is important to denote that street level bureaucrats consist of the police, health workers, social workers, and government officials who interact with citizens on a one to one basis. On this basis, these bureaucrats are able to make a representation of the frontline of the policy of the government. For example, scholar denotes that when a police officer carry’s out a security operation, with an aim of mopping out terrorism cells, then the officer under consideration only implements a government policy regarding fighting terrorism. Another example includes a situation whereby a school

Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility

Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This dissertation discusses and undertakes an analysis of some data gathered on Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility within organizations in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Industry. The environmental social responsibility activities to be looked at within the selected companies are their water usage level, emissions, waste produced and total energy used with regard to being aware of environmental concerns. In this chapter, the aim and objectives of the study are outlined and a brief introduction is furnished. 1.1 BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY In recent times, there has been much debate about whether corporations should be socially responsible or not and also the extent to which they should be responsible. With the global recession at the moment, the future years will show if CSR has been taking on by corporations or if it is, as critics say, merely a marketing stunt designed to make their business attractive (The Independent, 2009). The phrase social responsibility is often hard to pin down because of the fact that there are several schools of thought concerning this notion. Milton Friedman questions if companies are required to take responsibility for social issues (Kok et al., 2001, p. 286). He stressed that the sole social responsibility of any organization is to boost its profits through legal ways and that donating an organizations funds to the society is harmful to the organization as this might reduce the organizations profit or cause an increase in product price or, in exceptional cases, have both effects (Pinkston and Carroll, 1996). Some researchers on the other hand are of the opinion that because of the ever changing competitive environment in which businesses are carried out, it is essential that organizations incorporate some sort of Corporate Social Responsibility standard that will help foster its sustainability in the environment. Boynton (2002) asserts that social responsibility is â€Å"a val ue that specifies that every situation from family to firm- is responsible for its members conduct and can be held accountable for its actions†. This research work supports the notion that organizations should continually engage in corporate social responsibility activities; therefore, as a conscious strategy, corporations must endeavour to incorporate environmental CSR in their diverse functions and operations. Fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) also known as Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) industries focus on the production of consumable goods which people require from day to day. Fast Moving Consumer Goods can be said to be â€Å"low price items that are used with a single or limited number of consumptions† (Baron et al., 1991). Examples of FMCG or CPG products are food and beverages, footwear, clothing products, tobacco and other general products. The FMCG or CPG industry is an umbrella for wholesale and retail consumer goods producing companies. A number of companies function within this industry: examples are Nestle, Procter and Gamble, Pfizer, Reckitt Benkiser, British American Tobacco, Cadbury and Smithkline just to mention a few. According to Jarvis (2003), business organizations endeavour to maximise profits as much as they can. Fast-moving consumer goods companies cannot therefore be left out in the quest for profit maximisation as the goods they produce are sold to consumers in order to make some sort of gain. FMCG companies provide humans with day to day products they require and as such one of their responsibilities is to ensure that the manufactured products meet the required quality standard. In manufacturing their products, some FMCG companies make use of some natural resources such as water, wood, soil etc., and sophisticated machineries which in some way affect the environment. Making use of the earths natural resources without any provision for replacing the resources leads to depletion, while emissions from machineries pollute the environment. Corporations implement CSR activities because they hope they will give them a competitive advantage over their rivals. Branco and Rodigues (2006) assert that CSR offers internal and external gains. The benefits are referred to as internal if engaging in social responsibility activities helps a corporation build, develop and manage its wealth and abilities, for instance: corporate culture and expertise. External benefits, on the other, are those linked to a corporations status, staff awareness and culture; these are essential indescribable assets which, though hard to easily replace or duplicate, can be developed or trashed depending on whether a corporation is socially responsible or otherwise. Moreover, because companies take from the environment directly or indirectly, it is their responsibility to ensure that the environment and society at large, and not only the stakeholders, benefit from some kind of social responsibility activities set up by the companies (Stoner and Wankel, 19 88). Speaking of the FMCG industry in United Kingdom, Bourlakis and Weightman (2004) assert that the industry, which includes the food and grocery sector, contributes immensely to the countrys economy as it provides employment to over 3.2 million people. This figure accounts for close to 17% of the countrys total workforce. The same authors also mention that the FMCG industry accounts for over  £130 billion of consumer spending yielding, representing over 9% of the GDP. 1.2 THE MANUFACTURING SECTOR The British Prime Minister, Mr. Gordon Brown, declares that â€Å"†¦for this government manufacturing not only has been, but remains and will always be, critical to the success of the British economy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (BIS, 2008). The United Kingdom is the 6th largest manufacturing country in the world (See appendix 1 for details). It provides the economy with about  £150billion per annum. The countrys productivity has increased by about 50% since 1997. The United Kingdom attracts â€Å"more foreign direct investment than any country apart from the USA† (BIS, 2009). In UK, manufacturing accounts for 13% of the GDP; also, between 1997 and 2004, the average labour productivity grew by 4% over the United States, 5% above France and also 15% over Germany. The figure below shows a graph of the growth in productivity. Sheldons study on ‘social responsibility of management indicates that industries exist with the aim of servicing the society (Sheldon, 1923). The developments which various industries have made lately show that there is a link between the society and the industry. It can therefore be said that the purpose of creating industries is so that the society can benefit from it as well as sustain it. Sen (1999) observes that â€Å"as people who live in a broad sense together, we cannot escape the thought that the terrible occurrences that we see around us are quintessentially our problems. They are our responsibility whether or not they are also anyone elses† (Sen, 1999). The manufacturing sector is very huge and includes a range of industries such as: Aerospace, Biotechnology, Chemical, Food and beverages, Pharmaceuticals etc. The FMCG industry is one of the sub industries within the manufacturing sector. They sometimes face a lot of problems and as such struggle with critic isms from stakeholders on social responsibility matters even though they have functional CSR agendas. From the size of the British manufacturing industry, it is fair to say that it uses a huge amount of energy compared to the rest of the European Union. 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM From looking at FMCG Companys website and their social responsibility/sustainability reporting materials, it will be seen that they engage in corporate social responsibility at different levels. Looking closely at FMCG companies within the United Kingdom, it will be seen that almost all of them if not all, consider corporate social responsibility and its effect on their business operations particularly as it pertains to their corporate image, competitive advantage and even their finances. Davis (1973) in his work asserts that engaging in corporate social responsibility can improve an organizations finances and image. 1.4 AIM OF PROJECT The aim of the project is to contribute to the body of empirical data in the area of Corporate Social Responsibility by gathering information that will help in the analysis of environmental corporate social responsibility within organizations in the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods industry. The findings of this research should provide managers and the academic world some more information in the area of Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility. 1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The main objective of this study on the analysis of data gathered on environmental corporate social responsibility in some organizations in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Industry is to critically look at the steps the corporations take in being environmentally responsible and also how they measure the progress. Also, this dissertation will be attempt to: To analyse the data from selected FMCG companies relating to their environmental CSR practices to identify the indicator/metrics used by the companies to benchmark their performance on environmental CSR in their organizations; to determine factors that encourage environmental responsibility practices. To draw some conclusions and make some recommendations about the state of environmental CSR in the selected organizations. 1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The FMCG industry is very large and as such it may not be feasible for the researcher to report on all the companies in the industry bearing in mind the limitation of time and adequate resources. Therefore the scope of this study will be limited to environmental corporate social responsibility in selected FMCG companies. The study will take a look at the environmental corporate social activities they have embarked on with respect to water usage reduction, CO2 emission reduction, reduction of waste produced, and total energy usage of each of the companies. Owing to lack of time and resources, the researcher will not be able to conduct a survey of environment corporate social responsibility in all UK-based fast moving consumer goods companies. It is worth noting though that a lot of them carry out environmental corporate social responsibility activities and also report on them using indices to which some of them are benchmarked. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION This study is structured into five chapters. Chapter one provides an introduction/background to the research study, together with a brief introduction of the sector and industry. Chapter two contains the literature review; it comprehensively and critically reviews previous work done in this research area. Chapter three highlights the research design and data collection process employed by the researcher. Chapter four contains an analysis of the data gathered together. Some findings and discussions of the research area are also furnished. The final chapter, chapter five, contains some recommendations and conclusions based on the findings in the course of carrying out this dissertation. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Corporate Social Responsibility has progressed from an irrelevant and often discriminated concept to one that is today well-known and established in businesses round the globe (Lee, 2008). Corporate Social Responsibility can be thought of as an umbrella phrase that takes into consideration the various ways and means a corporation embarks on in trying to act ethically and morally. In the last couple of decades, CSR has become widely well-known (Campbell, 2007). According to some researchers, the first book on CSR was written in 1953 by Howard Bowen, with the title: Responsibilities of the Businessman (Carroll, 1979; Kantanen, 2005). Defining Corporate Social Responsibility can prove to be a complex task as it has varied meanings to different people. This is due to the fact that there is no agreed definition and as such organizations that are meticulous in their goals of incorporating CSR activities into their businesses are faced with compound problems. Because of how complex CSR is, it is hard to provide a definition. Stakeholders therefore make use of different definitions that are in line with their business operations, goals and aims. The definitions are often also related to the sizes of the corporations and how they regard their officers who are responsible for CSR activities within their organisations. Thus there is no agreed definition of CSR, because different corporations translate it to suit them depending on their state of affairs (MacLagan, 1999: Campbell, 2007: Garriga Mele, 2004). Bowen (1953) defines corporate social responsibility as â€Å"†¦ the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society†. Manakkalathil and Rudolf (1995) explain CSR as â€Å"the duty of organizations to conduct their business in a manner that respects the rights of individuals and promotes human welfare†. It is quite a weak explanation which makes it somewhat tough to actualize. Aguilera et al. (2007) emphasize that corporations should not border their CSR activities on stipulated legislation regarding such issues but should also make provision for activities not stipulated in any legislation they adhere to. Aguilera et al. (2007) assert that â€Å"corporate social responsibility is a companys considerations of and response to issues beyond the narrow economic, technical and legal requirements of the company to accomplish social and environmental benefits along with traditional economic gains†. Carroll (1991) states that CSR consists of f our aspects: legal, economic, ethical and philanthropic (discretionary) responsibility (See Appendix 1). Carroll (1991) argued that for a corporation striving to be seen as good within the society, all four aspects should be fulfilled. Carroll (1991) cites renowned economists Milton Friedmans assertion in trying to explain the relationship of the four aspects. On Friedmans part, he was only interested in the first three parts of CSR stating that corporations exist â€Å"to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom† (Carroll, 1991) and he totally objected to the philanthropic aspect saying â€Å"the business of business is business†. In saying this, he meant that the usual economic standpoint only acknowledges legal, ethical and economic responsibility as a crucial principle while taking part in altruistic activities do not yield incentives for corporations. Levitt ( 1958) has a different approach to the CSR issue called the functional theory which considers CSR as ethically neutral. Corporations are considered to have particular tasks or organizational codes that communicate their position in the society. Corporations are expected to fulfil their social responsibilities by conforming to existing legal frameworks, as the onus of determining social good is the responsibility of the state and not that of the corporations. The reliability and character of an organization is in its sensitivity to varying conditions and demand. Organizations that react positively to financial and other varying issues will thrive, while those that do not respond adequately will die. Consequently, if the immediate situation requires that corporations be â€Å"socially responsible† then the corporations must endeavour to be so. Davis (1960) implies that social responsibility pertains to corporations â€Å"decisions and actions taken for reasons at least partiall y beyond the firms direct economic or technical interest†. Eells and Walton (1961) debate the meaning of CSR and say that it pertains to the â€Å"problems that arise when corporate enterprise casts its shadow on the social scene, and the ethical principles that ought to govern the relationship between the corporation and society†. Deakin and Hobbs (2007) assert that corporations that go ahead and carry out CSR activities which are over the minimum legal requirements stand to benefit immensely. Margolis and Walsh (2003) in the research they conducted found that most corporations, however, only focus on particular aspects of CSR: mainly the economic aspect and try to shy away from the social and environmental aspects. 2.1.1 STAKEHOLDER THEORY OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The most spoken about theory of corporate social responsibility is the stakeholder theory. Freeman (1984) explains the basic concepts and attributes of stakeholder management in his booked entitled Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. He defines stakeholders to be ‘‘groups and individuals who can affect, or are affected by, the achievement of an organizations mission† (Freeman, 1984) or otherwise regarded as ‘‘those groups who have a stake in or a claim on the firm (Evan and Freeman, 1988). Freeman (2004) regards stakeholders as â€Å"those groups who are vital to the survival and success of the corporation†. Freeman explains that not only the owners of a corporation have genuine concerns about it but also persons and or groups of persons that might be affected or can possibly have an effect on the corporations doings and as such these groups of people have the right to be considered in any decision making process within the corporation. Kaler (2006) on the other hand refers to the stakeholder theory that supports the notion that corporations should be socially responsible. This theory states that â€Å"the shareholders value is boosted through employee commitment, customer loyalty, contractor cooperation and immense support from the community amongst other things. Some researchers are also of the opinion that the performance of organizations can be attributed to their strategies in trade and non-trade environments† (Baron, 2000). Freeman and Evan (1990) assert that corporations that embark on social responsibility activities often times do it because they trust that their managers are capable of boosting the corporations effectiveness in taking action regarding demands from external sources by handling and meeting the requests of the diverse shareholders. Stakeholder theory can be said to be a managerial activity because it expresses and directs how managers function (Freeman et al. 2006). In analyzing stakeholder theory, Donaldson and Preston (1995) proposed ethical guidelines for considering and selecting stakeholders. They made reference to this as being â€Å"instrumental† in the sense that when corporations manage their stakeholder activities accordingly, their performance will improve tremendously in relation to their stability, growth and profitability. According to Freeman (1994), the aim of stakeholder theory is conveyed in two key questions and the first is determining what the function of the firm is. This influences managers to convey the feeling of importance built within the corporation and also display activities that pull together all the major stakeholders. This propels the corporation forward and makes it possible for it to produce outstanding performance, instituted with respect to its function and economic p erformance in the open market. The second question asked by the stakeholder theory deals with the sort of responsibility owed to the stakeholders by the managers. This motivates the managers to convey the means they take in conducting their businesses and particularly the kind of relationship they yearn for and have to build with their stakeholders in order to realize their purpose (Friedman and Miles, 2006). The stakeholder theory concept can be further broken down into: normative stakeholder theory, which hinges on theories of how managers and sometimes stakeholders are supposed to behave, and also how they are supposed to view the beliefs of the corporation as they pertain to its ethical ethos (Friedman and Miles, 2006), and the descriptive stakeholder theory which is about how managers and stakeholders actually act and the perception of their responsibilities and actions. The stakeholder theory that, in fact, relates very well with corporate social responsibility is the instrumental stakeholder theory. This theory is at times associated with a corporations strategic style: where the major concern for the corporation is how its managers perform if they are allowed to put their own interests and/or the interests of the corporation forward as it relates to profit maximization or the maximization of stockholder value (Friedman and Miles, 2006). Orlitzky et al (2003) mention that several authors are of the opinion that corporate social performance might help a corporation towards acquiring new abilities, raw materials and possibilities which are apparent in a corporations culture, expertise, business and workforce. Corporate social performance is closely related to corporate social responsibility and it is sometimes assumed that it will help advance managerial abilities that boost employee contribution, organization and harmonization together with a ground-breaking management approach (Shrivastava, 1995). The reputation perspective theory on the other hand, states that â€Å"superficially, corporate social performance might encourage the development of a positive figure with a corporations customers, its investors, banks and contractors which it can in the long run benefit from through having access to capital and also possibly draw high-quality employees towards it and also enhance the good will of its current employees towards the organization which over time the corporation might benefit from in financial terms† (Orlitzky et al, 2003). In recent times, it will be seen that so many corporations and/or establishments have planned and sustained their businesses in ways that correspond to the concept of the stakeholder theory (Collins and Porras, 1994). For example, corporations like Procter and Gamble, Reckitt Benckiser, British American Tobacco, to mention a few, present an excellent example of the value managers place on the fundamentals of stakeholder theory. It is worth noting that these corporations place high importance on their stakeholders and organizational wealth but at the same time do not stress on profitability as the push factor of their business. This is because they are fully aware of the worth and relationship with stakeholders as an important factor if they are to succeed. Friedman (1970) on the other hand is of a contrary opinion. He is of the opinion that when executives take decisions it should only be for the purpose of wealth creation for its stakeholders. It is evident that Friedman does not support the concept of CSR. He holds that the principal duty of directors is towards their staff. In his opinion, a corporate executive may take decisions that directly concern himself but should never take decisions concerning, for example, price mark down of products or pollution due to carbon emission, beyond the obligations imposed on the corporation by law. Friedman states further that by doing these, the corporate executive will be spending the corporations wealth and forcing its stockholders to pay tax while at the same time taking decision on the expenditure of the corporations tax returns. Friedman (1970) asserts that governments demand taxes from corporate entities, ensuring that there are adequate governmental, legal and constitutional measures in place to force compliance. Friedman stresses that executives are selected by stockholders as representatives to protect their interest and this motivation dies gradually if the corporate executive wastes the stockholders wealth on social activities. Friedmans belief is that government instructs corporations to pay a certain amount as tax and if paid, government use the tax appropriately, thereby making it unnecessary for corporations themselves to engage in any CSR projects. In this regard, one assumes that such taxes will be adequate to ensure the effective handling by the government of CSR activities that benefit the environment and the larger society. In Friedmans perception, the corporations that pay their taxes as and when due are responsible. Jensen and Meckling (1976) assert that corporate social responsibility may have an adverse effect on corporations especially if the cost of implementing CSR projects becomes exceptionally high. There are certain contrary views that claim that many ostensibly socially responsible corporations actually benefit far more from their CSR activities than the target societies that were expected to be the main beneficiaries. For example, relying on a report by Corporate Watch (2006), more than â€Å"80% of corporate CSR decision-makers were confident in the ability of good CSR practice to deliver branding and employee benefits. To take the example of corporate philanthropy, when corporations make donations to charity, they are giving away their shareholders money, which they can only do if they see potential profit in it. This may be because they want to improve their image by associating themselves with a cause, to exploit a cheap vehicle for advertising, or to counter the claims of pressure groups, but there is always an underlying financial motive, so the company benefits more than the charity†. Paine (2002) affirms that the choice to neglect corporate social responsibility will in some way indicate the corporations disrespect for its stakeholders who include its workers, suppliers, clientele and the society at large. Quoting CIPD (2009), â€Å"When CSR is done well; it means a precious, though precarious, trust in your business. Successful CSR can bring benefits such as a distinct position in your marketplace, protecting your employer brand, and building credibility and trust with current and potential customers and employees. It can help significantly with recruitment, engagement and retention of employees†. Some academics believe that some corporations embark on corporate social responsibility projects for strategic reasons. Xueming and Bhattacharya (2008) affirm that in recent times, corporate social responsibility matches the strategic plan of many corporations. They mention that although some corporations carry out a range of socially responsible activities such as philanthropic acts, corporate responsibility and sustainability reporting, marketing and stakeholder events to mention a few, they do so not because they feel it is the â€Å"right thing to do† but regard it is a â€Å"smart thing to do†. 2.1.1 GOVERNMENT AS STAKEHOLDERS Porter and Van der Linde (1995) believe that countries impose firm directives on home organizations, and the relationship government has with organizations corporate social responsibility issues positively affects them. It encourages them to create policies pertaining to the environment, cost reduction, sustainability of their products, and also increase the organizations competitive advantage in the international marketplace. This means that the government can control organizations and ensure they adhere to its directives and policies. Even though government has great control on the way organizations operate their businesses through the use of regulatory guidelines and policies, the activities of organizations have also had a growing influence on the government. Thorne et al (2008) assert that â€Å"managing this relationship with government officials while navigating the dynamic world of politics is a major challenge for firms, both large and small†. They explain that because of the varied nature of the environment, there are several competitors and suppliers in the decision making process, and as such raising the economic risks. Being stakeholders, organizations and government are considered mutual stakeholders and as such both sides can cooperate and play a part in the decision making process. In a Questions-and-Answers session with the Chairman and CEO, Charles Holliday, of DuPont a science-based solution company, Holliday was asked on how businesses and the government can effectively collaborate on stan dards-setting and value-creation for their stakeholders. He replied as follows: â€Å"The complexities and opportunities of modern business and industry are too great to assume that regulation alone can get us where we have to go. Regulation, as we have seen historically, is not a precision tool for change. But it can overcome inertia and get things going. The landmark environmental legislation of the 1970s and 1980s set in motion the kind of change that in the U.S. has led to cleaner air and water. No one doubts that†. He further said that in regulating sustainability, â€Å"We can expect that government will identify some pressure points where regulatory instruments can advance the cause. But real progress in sustainability will come from what we build into products and services, in the way we design and operate our plants and distribution networks, in the way we think about the ultimate disposition of the things we make, even and especially in the way we direct our rese arch and development. Its hard to imagine regulatory protocols that can encompass all of that. Industry has to be imaginative and proactive and show that we can accomplish the things our stakeholders expect of us, especially those things that go beyond the letter of the law† (as cited in Freeman et al, 2006). He also mentioned that at DuPont, they have reduced their greenhouse gas emissions by 72% since 1990 and this is because it was expected of them by their stakeholders to be proactive, and that gave them the push. This further shows how corporations work on their own in accordance with government directives designed towards improving the society. Marcus (2002) and Delmas and Terlaak (2002) are quick to assert that some corporations might be discouraged if government implements regulations they consider stringent and as such corporations should be allowed to make their own decisions as they consider appropriate. 2.2 THE CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS The issue of whether corporations should be socially responsible or not, the extent to which they should be responsible, to whom they should be responsible and the context in which they should be responsible, has been a major debate amongst researchers. There are two schools of thought which have differing opinions on CSR matters. They are the restrictive and expansionist opinions. The restrictive school of thought upholds the profit maximisation stand while the other school believes that corporations should be socially responsible. 2.2.1 THE EXPANSIONIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT The expansionists believe that environmental problems are caused by businesses and for that reason they should be liable for their externalities. Stoner and Wankel (1988) maintain that corporations should take into consideration the impact of their environmental activities on the society and for that reason they should act responsibly not only for the benefit of their stakeholders but to the general populous. Davis and Blomstrom (1975) give an account of their opinion of how a model corporation should look. They assert that it should provide an opportunity for investment, a good working condition, be ethically considerate, be a good corporation to do business with, pay their tax contributions and support governments endeavours, be good to the community they work in, contribute to social endeavours and public concerns. Crowther and Rayman- Bacchus (2004) assert that â€Å"the activities of an organization impacts upon the external environment and have suggested that such an organizat ion should therefore be accountable to a wider audience than simply its shareholders†. They also mention that the â€Å"recognition of the rights of all stakeholders and the duty of a business to be accountable in this wider context therefore has been largely a relatively recent phenomenon†. In summary, corporate social responsibility should include responsibility to the owners of the business, Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This dissertation discusses and undertakes an analysis of some data gathered on Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility within organizations in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Industry. The environmental social responsibility activities to be looked at within the selected companies are their water usage level, emissions, waste produced and total energy used with regard to being aware of environmental concerns. In this chapter, the aim and objectives of the study are outlined and a brief introduction is furnished. 1.1 BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY In recent times, there has been much debate about whether corporations should be socially responsible or not and also the extent to which they should be responsible. With the global recession at the moment, the future years will show if CSR has been taking on by corporations or if it is, as critics say, merely a marketing stunt designed to make their business attractive (The Independent, 2009). The phrase social responsibility is often hard to pin down because of the fact that there are several schools of thought concerning this notion. Milton Friedman questions if companies are required to take responsibility for social issues (Kok et al., 2001, p. 286). He stressed that the sole social responsibility of any organization is to boost its profits through legal ways and that donating an organizations funds to the society is harmful to the organization as this might reduce the organizations profit or cause an increase in product price or, in exceptional cases, have both effects (Pinkston and Carroll, 1996). Some researchers on the other hand are of the opinion that because of the ever changing competitive environment in which businesses are carried out, it is essential that organizations incorporate some sort of Corporate Social Responsibility standard that will help foster its sustainability in the environment. Boynton (2002) asserts that social responsibility is â€Å"a val ue that specifies that every situation from family to firm- is responsible for its members conduct and can be held accountable for its actions†. This research work supports the notion that organizations should continually engage in corporate social responsibility activities; therefore, as a conscious strategy, corporations must endeavour to incorporate environmental CSR in their diverse functions and operations. Fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) also known as Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) industries focus on the production of consumable goods which people require from day to day. Fast Moving Consumer Goods can be said to be â€Å"low price items that are used with a single or limited number of consumptions† (Baron et al., 1991). Examples of FMCG or CPG products are food and beverages, footwear, clothing products, tobacco and other general products. The FMCG or CPG industry is an umbrella for wholesale and retail consumer goods producing companies. A number of companies function within this industry: examples are Nestle, Procter and Gamble, Pfizer, Reckitt Benkiser, British American Tobacco, Cadbury and Smithkline just to mention a few. According to Jarvis (2003), business organizations endeavour to maximise profits as much as they can. Fast-moving consumer goods companies cannot therefore be left out in the quest for profit maximisation as the goods they produce are sold to consumers in order to make some sort of gain. FMCG companies provide humans with day to day products they require and as such one of their responsibilities is to ensure that the manufactured products meet the required quality standard. In manufacturing their products, some FMCG companies make use of some natural resources such as water, wood, soil etc., and sophisticated machineries which in some way affect the environment. Making use of the earths natural resources without any provision for replacing the resources leads to depletion, while emissions from machineries pollute the environment. Corporations implement CSR activities because they hope they will give them a competitive advantage over their rivals. Branco and Rodigues (2006) assert that CSR offers internal and external gains. The benefits are referred to as internal if engaging in social responsibility activities helps a corporation build, develop and manage its wealth and abilities, for instance: corporate culture and expertise. External benefits, on the other, are those linked to a corporations status, staff awareness and culture; these are essential indescribable assets which, though hard to easily replace or duplicate, can be developed or trashed depending on whether a corporation is socially responsible or otherwise. Moreover, because companies take from the environment directly or indirectly, it is their responsibility to ensure that the environment and society at large, and not only the stakeholders, benefit from some kind of social responsibility activities set up by the companies (Stoner and Wankel, 19 88). Speaking of the FMCG industry in United Kingdom, Bourlakis and Weightman (2004) assert that the industry, which includes the food and grocery sector, contributes immensely to the countrys economy as it provides employment to over 3.2 million people. This figure accounts for close to 17% of the countrys total workforce. The same authors also mention that the FMCG industry accounts for over  £130 billion of consumer spending yielding, representing over 9% of the GDP. 1.2 THE MANUFACTURING SECTOR The British Prime Minister, Mr. Gordon Brown, declares that â€Å"†¦for this government manufacturing not only has been, but remains and will always be, critical to the success of the British economy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (BIS, 2008). The United Kingdom is the 6th largest manufacturing country in the world (See appendix 1 for details). It provides the economy with about  £150billion per annum. The countrys productivity has increased by about 50% since 1997. The United Kingdom attracts â€Å"more foreign direct investment than any country apart from the USA† (BIS, 2009). In UK, manufacturing accounts for 13% of the GDP; also, between 1997 and 2004, the average labour productivity grew by 4% over the United States, 5% above France and also 15% over Germany. The figure below shows a graph of the growth in productivity. Sheldons study on ‘social responsibility of management indicates that industries exist with the aim of servicing the society (Sheldon, 1923). The developments which various industries have made lately show that there is a link between the society and the industry. It can therefore be said that the purpose of creating industries is so that the society can benefit from it as well as sustain it. Sen (1999) observes that â€Å"as people who live in a broad sense together, we cannot escape the thought that the terrible occurrences that we see around us are quintessentially our problems. They are our responsibility whether or not they are also anyone elses† (Sen, 1999). The manufacturing sector is very huge and includes a range of industries such as: Aerospace, Biotechnology, Chemical, Food and beverages, Pharmaceuticals etc. The FMCG industry is one of the sub industries within the manufacturing sector. They sometimes face a lot of problems and as such struggle with critic isms from stakeholders on social responsibility matters even though they have functional CSR agendas. From the size of the British manufacturing industry, it is fair to say that it uses a huge amount of energy compared to the rest of the European Union. 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM From looking at FMCG Companys website and their social responsibility/sustainability reporting materials, it will be seen that they engage in corporate social responsibility at different levels. Looking closely at FMCG companies within the United Kingdom, it will be seen that almost all of them if not all, consider corporate social responsibility and its effect on their business operations particularly as it pertains to their corporate image, competitive advantage and even their finances. Davis (1973) in his work asserts that engaging in corporate social responsibility can improve an organizations finances and image. 1.4 AIM OF PROJECT The aim of the project is to contribute to the body of empirical data in the area of Corporate Social Responsibility by gathering information that will help in the analysis of environmental corporate social responsibility within organizations in the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods industry. The findings of this research should provide managers and the academic world some more information in the area of Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility. 1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The main objective of this study on the analysis of data gathered on environmental corporate social responsibility in some organizations in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Industry is to critically look at the steps the corporations take in being environmentally responsible and also how they measure the progress. Also, this dissertation will be attempt to: To analyse the data from selected FMCG companies relating to their environmental CSR practices to identify the indicator/metrics used by the companies to benchmark their performance on environmental CSR in their organizations; to determine factors that encourage environmental responsibility practices. To draw some conclusions and make some recommendations about the state of environmental CSR in the selected organizations. 1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The FMCG industry is very large and as such it may not be feasible for the researcher to report on all the companies in the industry bearing in mind the limitation of time and adequate resources. Therefore the scope of this study will be limited to environmental corporate social responsibility in selected FMCG companies. The study will take a look at the environmental corporate social activities they have embarked on with respect to water usage reduction, CO2 emission reduction, reduction of waste produced, and total energy usage of each of the companies. Owing to lack of time and resources, the researcher will not be able to conduct a survey of environment corporate social responsibility in all UK-based fast moving consumer goods companies. It is worth noting though that a lot of them carry out environmental corporate social responsibility activities and also report on them using indices to which some of them are benchmarked. 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION This study is structured into five chapters. Chapter one provides an introduction/background to the research study, together with a brief introduction of the sector and industry. Chapter two contains the literature review; it comprehensively and critically reviews previous work done in this research area. Chapter three highlights the research design and data collection process employed by the researcher. Chapter four contains an analysis of the data gathered together. Some findings and discussions of the research area are also furnished. The final chapter, chapter five, contains some recommendations and conclusions based on the findings in the course of carrying out this dissertation. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Corporate Social Responsibility has progressed from an irrelevant and often discriminated concept to one that is today well-known and established in businesses round the globe (Lee, 2008). Corporate Social Responsibility can be thought of as an umbrella phrase that takes into consideration the various ways and means a corporation embarks on in trying to act ethically and morally. In the last couple of decades, CSR has become widely well-known (Campbell, 2007). According to some researchers, the first book on CSR was written in 1953 by Howard Bowen, with the title: Responsibilities of the Businessman (Carroll, 1979; Kantanen, 2005). Defining Corporate Social Responsibility can prove to be a complex task as it has varied meanings to different people. This is due to the fact that there is no agreed definition and as such organizations that are meticulous in their goals of incorporating CSR activities into their businesses are faced with compound problems. Because of how complex CSR is, it is hard to provide a definition. Stakeholders therefore make use of different definitions that are in line with their business operations, goals and aims. The definitions are often also related to the sizes of the corporations and how they regard their officers who are responsible for CSR activities within their organisations. Thus there is no agreed definition of CSR, because different corporations translate it to suit them depending on their state of affairs (MacLagan, 1999: Campbell, 2007: Garriga Mele, 2004). Bowen (1953) defines corporate social responsibility as â€Å"†¦ the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society†. Manakkalathil and Rudolf (1995) explain CSR as â€Å"the duty of organizations to conduct their business in a manner that respects the rights of individuals and promotes human welfare†. It is quite a weak explanation which makes it somewhat tough to actualize. Aguilera et al. (2007) emphasize that corporations should not border their CSR activities on stipulated legislation regarding such issues but should also make provision for activities not stipulated in any legislation they adhere to. Aguilera et al. (2007) assert that â€Å"corporate social responsibility is a companys considerations of and response to issues beyond the narrow economic, technical and legal requirements of the company to accomplish social and environmental benefits along with traditional economic gains†. Carroll (1991) states that CSR consists of f our aspects: legal, economic, ethical and philanthropic (discretionary) responsibility (See Appendix 1). Carroll (1991) argued that for a corporation striving to be seen as good within the society, all four aspects should be fulfilled. Carroll (1991) cites renowned economists Milton Friedmans assertion in trying to explain the relationship of the four aspects. On Friedmans part, he was only interested in the first three parts of CSR stating that corporations exist â€Å"to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom† (Carroll, 1991) and he totally objected to the philanthropic aspect saying â€Å"the business of business is business†. In saying this, he meant that the usual economic standpoint only acknowledges legal, ethical and economic responsibility as a crucial principle while taking part in altruistic activities do not yield incentives for corporations. Levitt ( 1958) has a different approach to the CSR issue called the functional theory which considers CSR as ethically neutral. Corporations are considered to have particular tasks or organizational codes that communicate their position in the society. Corporations are expected to fulfil their social responsibilities by conforming to existing legal frameworks, as the onus of determining social good is the responsibility of the state and not that of the corporations. The reliability and character of an organization is in its sensitivity to varying conditions and demand. Organizations that react positively to financial and other varying issues will thrive, while those that do not respond adequately will die. Consequently, if the immediate situation requires that corporations be â€Å"socially responsible† then the corporations must endeavour to be so. Davis (1960) implies that social responsibility pertains to corporations â€Å"decisions and actions taken for reasons at least partiall y beyond the firms direct economic or technical interest†. Eells and Walton (1961) debate the meaning of CSR and say that it pertains to the â€Å"problems that arise when corporate enterprise casts its shadow on the social scene, and the ethical principles that ought to govern the relationship between the corporation and society†. Deakin and Hobbs (2007) assert that corporations that go ahead and carry out CSR activities which are over the minimum legal requirements stand to benefit immensely. Margolis and Walsh (2003) in the research they conducted found that most corporations, however, only focus on particular aspects of CSR: mainly the economic aspect and try to shy away from the social and environmental aspects. 2.1.1 STAKEHOLDER THEORY OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The most spoken about theory of corporate social responsibility is the stakeholder theory. Freeman (1984) explains the basic concepts and attributes of stakeholder management in his booked entitled Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. He defines stakeholders to be ‘‘groups and individuals who can affect, or are affected by, the achievement of an organizations mission† (Freeman, 1984) or otherwise regarded as ‘‘those groups who have a stake in or a claim on the firm (Evan and Freeman, 1988). Freeman (2004) regards stakeholders as â€Å"those groups who are vital to the survival and success of the corporation†. Freeman explains that not only the owners of a corporation have genuine concerns about it but also persons and or groups of persons that might be affected or can possibly have an effect on the corporations doings and as such these groups of people have the right to be considered in any decision making process within the corporation. Kaler (2006) on the other hand refers to the stakeholder theory that supports the notion that corporations should be socially responsible. This theory states that â€Å"the shareholders value is boosted through employee commitment, customer loyalty, contractor cooperation and immense support from the community amongst other things. Some researchers are also of the opinion that the performance of organizations can be attributed to their strategies in trade and non-trade environments† (Baron, 2000). Freeman and Evan (1990) assert that corporations that embark on social responsibility activities often times do it because they trust that their managers are capable of boosting the corporations effectiveness in taking action regarding demands from external sources by handling and meeting the requests of the diverse shareholders. Stakeholder theory can be said to be a managerial activity because it expresses and directs how managers function (Freeman et al. 2006). In analyzing stakeholder theory, Donaldson and Preston (1995) proposed ethical guidelines for considering and selecting stakeholders. They made reference to this as being â€Å"instrumental† in the sense that when corporations manage their stakeholder activities accordingly, their performance will improve tremendously in relation to their stability, growth and profitability. According to Freeman (1994), the aim of stakeholder theory is conveyed in two key questions and the first is determining what the function of the firm is. This influences managers to convey the feeling of importance built within the corporation and also display activities that pull together all the major stakeholders. This propels the corporation forward and makes it possible for it to produce outstanding performance, instituted with respect to its function and economic p erformance in the open market. The second question asked by the stakeholder theory deals with the sort of responsibility owed to the stakeholders by the managers. This motivates the managers to convey the means they take in conducting their businesses and particularly the kind of relationship they yearn for and have to build with their stakeholders in order to realize their purpose (Friedman and Miles, 2006). The stakeholder theory concept can be further broken down into: normative stakeholder theory, which hinges on theories of how managers and sometimes stakeholders are supposed to behave, and also how they are supposed to view the beliefs of the corporation as they pertain to its ethical ethos (Friedman and Miles, 2006), and the descriptive stakeholder theory which is about how managers and stakeholders actually act and the perception of their responsibilities and actions. The stakeholder theory that, in fact, relates very well with corporate social responsibility is the instrumental stakeholder theory. This theory is at times associated with a corporations strategic style: where the major concern for the corporation is how its managers perform if they are allowed to put their own interests and/or the interests of the corporation forward as it relates to profit maximization or the maximization of stockholder value (Friedman and Miles, 2006). Orlitzky et al (2003) mention that several authors are of the opinion that corporate social performance might help a corporation towards acquiring new abilities, raw materials and possibilities which are apparent in a corporations culture, expertise, business and workforce. Corporate social performance is closely related to corporate social responsibility and it is sometimes assumed that it will help advance managerial abilities that boost employee contribution, organization and harmonization together with a ground-breaking management approach (Shrivastava, 1995). The reputation perspective theory on the other hand, states that â€Å"superficially, corporate social performance might encourage the development of a positive figure with a corporations customers, its investors, banks and contractors which it can in the long run benefit from through having access to capital and also possibly draw high-quality employees towards it and also enhance the good will of its current employees towards the organization which over time the corporation might benefit from in financial terms† (Orlitzky et al, 2003). In recent times, it will be seen that so many corporations and/or establishments have planned and sustained their businesses in ways that correspond to the concept of the stakeholder theory (Collins and Porras, 1994). For example, corporations like Procter and Gamble, Reckitt Benckiser, British American Tobacco, to mention a few, present an excellent example of the value managers place on the fundamentals of stakeholder theory. It is worth noting that these corporations place high importance on their stakeholders and organizational wealth but at the same time do not stress on profitability as the push factor of their business. This is because they are fully aware of the worth and relationship with stakeholders as an important factor if they are to succeed. Friedman (1970) on the other hand is of a contrary opinion. He is of the opinion that when executives take decisions it should only be for the purpose of wealth creation for its stakeholders. It is evident that Friedman does not support the concept of CSR. He holds that the principal duty of directors is towards their staff. In his opinion, a corporate executive may take decisions that directly concern himself but should never take decisions concerning, for example, price mark down of products or pollution due to carbon emission, beyond the obligations imposed on the corporation by law. Friedman states further that by doing these, the corporate executive will be spending the corporations wealth and forcing its stockholders to pay tax while at the same time taking decision on the expenditure of the corporations tax returns. Friedman (1970) asserts that governments demand taxes from corporate entities, ensuring that there are adequate governmental, legal and constitutional measures in place to force compliance. Friedman stresses that executives are selected by stockholders as representatives to protect their interest and this motivation dies gradually if the corporate executive wastes the stockholders wealth on social activities. Friedmans belief is that government instructs corporations to pay a certain amount as tax and if paid, government use the tax appropriately, thereby making it unnecessary for corporations themselves to engage in any CSR projects. In this regard, one assumes that such taxes will be adequate to ensure the effective handling by the government of CSR activities that benefit the environment and the larger society. In Friedmans perception, the corporations that pay their taxes as and when due are responsible. Jensen and Meckling (1976) assert that corporate social responsibility may have an adverse effect on corporations especially if the cost of implementing CSR projects becomes exceptionally high. There are certain contrary views that claim that many ostensibly socially responsible corporations actually benefit far more from their CSR activities than the target societies that were expected to be the main beneficiaries. For example, relying on a report by Corporate Watch (2006), more than â€Å"80% of corporate CSR decision-makers were confident in the ability of good CSR practice to deliver branding and employee benefits. To take the example of corporate philanthropy, when corporations make donations to charity, they are giving away their shareholders money, which they can only do if they see potential profit in it. This may be because they want to improve their image by associating themselves with a cause, to exploit a cheap vehicle for advertising, or to counter the claims of pressure groups, but there is always an underlying financial motive, so the company benefits more than the charity†. Paine (2002) affirms that the choice to neglect corporate social responsibility will in some way indicate the corporations disrespect for its stakeholders who include its workers, suppliers, clientele and the society at large. Quoting CIPD (2009), â€Å"When CSR is done well; it means a precious, though precarious, trust in your business. Successful CSR can bring benefits such as a distinct position in your marketplace, protecting your employer brand, and building credibility and trust with current and potential customers and employees. It can help significantly with recruitment, engagement and retention of employees†. Some academics believe that some corporations embark on corporate social responsibility projects for strategic reasons. Xueming and Bhattacharya (2008) affirm that in recent times, corporate social responsibility matches the strategic plan of many corporations. They mention that although some corporations carry out a range of socially responsible activities such as philanthropic acts, corporate responsibility and sustainability reporting, marketing and stakeholder events to mention a few, they do so not because they feel it is the â€Å"right thing to do† but regard it is a â€Å"smart thing to do†. 2.1.1 GOVERNMENT AS STAKEHOLDERS Porter and Van der Linde (1995) believe that countries impose firm directives on home organizations, and the relationship government has with organizations corporate social responsibility issues positively affects them. It encourages them to create policies pertaining to the environment, cost reduction, sustainability of their products, and also increase the organizations competitive advantage in the international marketplace. This means that the government can control organizations and ensure they adhere to its directives and policies. Even though government has great control on the way organizations operate their businesses through the use of regulatory guidelines and policies, the activities of organizations have also had a growing influence on the government. Thorne et al (2008) assert that â€Å"managing this relationship with government officials while navigating the dynamic world of politics is a major challenge for firms, both large and small†. They explain that because of the varied nature of the environment, there are several competitors and suppliers in the decision making process, and as such raising the economic risks. Being stakeholders, organizations and government are considered mutual stakeholders and as such both sides can cooperate and play a part in the decision making process. In a Questions-and-Answers session with the Chairman and CEO, Charles Holliday, of DuPont a science-based solution company, Holliday was asked on how businesses and the government can effectively collaborate on stan dards-setting and value-creation for their stakeholders. He replied as follows: â€Å"The complexities and opportunities of modern business and industry are too great to assume that regulation alone can get us where we have to go. Regulation, as we have seen historically, is not a precision tool for change. But it can overcome inertia and get things going. The landmark environmental legislation of the 1970s and 1980s set in motion the kind of change that in the U.S. has led to cleaner air and water. No one doubts that†. He further said that in regulating sustainability, â€Å"We can expect that government will identify some pressure points where regulatory instruments can advance the cause. But real progress in sustainability will come from what we build into products and services, in the way we design and operate our plants and distribution networks, in the way we think about the ultimate disposition of the things we make, even and especially in the way we direct our rese arch and development. Its hard to imagine regulatory protocols that can encompass all of that. Industry has to be imaginative and proactive and show that we can accomplish the things our stakeholders expect of us, especially those things that go beyond the letter of the law† (as cited in Freeman et al, 2006). He also mentioned that at DuPont, they have reduced their greenhouse gas emissions by 72% since 1990 and this is because it was expected of them by their stakeholders to be proactive, and that gave them the push. This further shows how corporations work on their own in accordance with government directives designed towards improving the society. Marcus (2002) and Delmas and Terlaak (2002) are quick to assert that some corporations might be discouraged if government implements regulations they consider stringent and as such corporations should be allowed to make their own decisions as they consider appropriate. 2.2 THE CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS The issue of whether corporations should be socially responsible or not, the extent to which they should be responsible, to whom they should be responsible and the context in which they should be responsible, has been a major debate amongst researchers. There are two schools of thought which have differing opinions on CSR matters. They are the restrictive and expansionist opinions. The restrictive school of thought upholds the profit maximisation stand while the other school believes that corporations should be socially responsible. 2.2.1 THE EXPANSIONIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT The expansionists believe that environmental problems are caused by businesses and for that reason they should be liable for their externalities. Stoner and Wankel (1988) maintain that corporations should take into consideration the impact of their environmental activities on the society and for that reason they should act responsibly not only for the benefit of their stakeholders but to the general populous. Davis and Blomstrom (1975) give an account of their opinion of how a model corporation should look. They assert that it should provide an opportunity for investment, a good working condition, be ethically considerate, be a good corporation to do business with, pay their tax contributions and support governments endeavours, be good to the community they work in, contribute to social endeavours and public concerns. Crowther and Rayman- Bacchus (2004) assert that â€Å"the activities of an organization impacts upon the external environment and have suggested that such an organizat ion should therefore be accountable to a wider audience than simply its shareholders†. They also mention that the â€Å"recognition of the rights of all stakeholders and the duty of a business to be accountable in this wider context therefore has been largely a relatively recent phenomenon†. In summary, corporate social responsibility should include responsibility to the owners of the business,

Drama Portfolio :: Drama

Drama Portfolio When I entered the stimulus room my initial reactions were that it had been created in a way that it made you think about what was going on within each section of the room. For example none of the objects were straightforward and simple to figure out. A lot of the items were symbolic and had multiple meanings such as the mirror in the past section could mean a change of appearance or reflecting on the past. The room was divided into three different sections, past, present and future. There were dividers in-between the sections and these also seemed to have meanings. I interpreted the whole room as being one person’s past, present and future and the room told this persons story. The future section was covered by a large white cloth. On top of the cloth was a bench on which lay a shape that looked like a body. This instantly made me think of a funeral, as next to the body was a huge vase of flowers. Also in this section was a table set out for one, which I think indicates that the person who died was lonely when they died, as it is only set out for one. On the white cloth was painted a large question mark, which I think was placed there to symbolise the uncertainty of the future, and the mystery of death. Hanging up in the corner of this section was a larger than life railway ticket that read â€Å"On my way to meet Fiona.† This gave me the idea that maybe Fiona was somebody that the dead person knew and she passed away. Now that the mystery person has died too they are going to meet them in heaven. The divider between this and the present section was a row of blank newspapers on the floor, and I think these were put here to show that it was the future section (as the newspapers haven’t been written yet) and maybe to imply that the person who died was important or famous (as their death was in the newspaper). In the middle of the room was the present section. In this section the main theme was time. There were pictures of melting clocks stuck to the walls, on the floor and there was clock with no hands chalked on the floor. There was also a working clock placed on the floor. I think all of these objects were to symbolise time passing by, and that time is precious. Also in this section was a table laid out for two. I think this is to symbolise meeting someone – maybe a partner or